1. Common terms used in cattle management

2. Breeds of Cattle

3. Cross Breeding

4. Selection of cattle

5. Housing

6. Feed Management

1. Common terms used in cattle management

CALF:   Young one of cow by birth to 6 Months of age is known as Calf

HEIFER:  Female calf from the age of puberty to calving is known as Heifer.

BULL OR SIRE:  A male calf from the age of puberty to castration is known as Bull or Sire. It is fit for servicing.

BULLOCK: A castrated bull is known as Bullock which is used for  work or ploughing

SCRUB BULL:  A bull which is not having good progeny record non descriptive bull.

BREEDING BULL:  A bull which is maintained for the purpose of breeding which is having good Progeny record.

TEASER BULL: A caudectomised bull (after conducting curulectomy operation) which is used in the herd to detect the animals in heat.

COW:  A female or heifer after first calving is known as Cow.

MILCH COW:  A cow which gives milk is known as milch cow.

DRY COW: A cow which has stopped the milk is known as dry cow.

NOTE: The same terms are applied to the buffaloes with prefix of Buffalo Eg. Buffalo calf, Buff Bull.

COLOSTRUM: The milk produced by a cow or buffalo just after calving is known as Colostrum

LACTATION:  The period between the parturition or delivery of calf to stoppage of milk secretion of a cow is known as lactation.

GESTATION PERIOD: The duration of pregnancy is known as gestation period

WEAVING: Separation of calf from the mother after parturition is known as weaning.

CULLING: Culling is a process in known the unwanted, unproductive or uneconomic animals are removed from the herd or farm. This is done for economical.

BREEDING: Crossing of the male and female individuals of the same species to obtain the offspring of the desired characters is known as breeding.

OESTRUS OR HEAT PERIOD: The period during which the female animal accepts the male for coitus or servicing and conception takes place.

ARTIFICAL INSEMINATION: A.I .Introduction of semen into the female genital tract by means of instruments is known as A.I.

SERVICING: Mating of bull and cow in heat is known as servicing.

FREEMORTIN: When twin calves of opposite sexes are born to a cow, the female twin   born is known.

VEAL: The meant of calf is known as veal.

(Source:   http://bieap.gov.in/DairyAnimalManagementTheory.pdf)

2. BREEDS OF CATTLE

INDIGENOUS BREED
Indigenous Breeds are classified under three groups based on utility / purpose.
a) Milch breeds / Milk breeds
b) Dual Purpose breeds
c) Draught breeds

Milch Breeds / Milk Breeds:
The cows of these breeds are high milk yields and the male animals are slow or poor work animals. The examples of Indian milch breeds are shahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir and Deoni The milk production of milk breeds is on the average more than 1600 kg per lactation

Dual Purpose Breeds:
The cows in these breeds are average milk yielder and male animals are very useful for work. Their milk production per lactation is 500 kg to 150 kg. The example of this group is Ongole, Hariana, Kankrej, Tharparker, Krishna valley, Rathi and Goalo Mewathi.

Draught Breeds:
The male animals are good for work and Cows are poor milk yielder are their milk yield as an average is less than 500 kg per lactation. They are usually white in color. A pair of bullocks can haul 1000 kg. Net with an iron typed cart on a good road at walking speed of 5 to 7 km per hour and cover a distance of 30 - 40 km per day. Twice as much weight can be pulled on pneumatic rubber tube carts. The example of this group Kangayam, Umblacherry, Amritmahal, Hallikar.

Exotic breed – Milch – Jersey, Holstein Friesian

Milch Breed
Red Sindhi

Sahiwal

Gir

Deoni

Milch and Draught breeds
Hariana

Tharparkar

Kankrej

Draught Breeds
Kangayam

Amritmahal

Hallikar

Umblacherry

Origin: Tanjore district in Tamilnadu.

Distinguishing characters:

EXOTIC BREEDS

Jersey

Origin: This breed was developed from the island of jersey in the English channel.

Distinguishing Characters:

Holstein Friesian

Origin: This breed is originated in Holland.

Distinguishing Characters:

3. CROSS BREEDING:
It is mating of animals of different breeds. Cross breeding is followed for breeding animals for milk production and meat production. In India zebu breeds of cows and nondescript cows are crossed with exotic breeds like Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss and Jersey bulls or their semen, to enhance the milk production potential of the progeny.

Advantage:

Disadvantages:

 (Source: http://bieap.gov.in/DairyAnimalManagementTheory.pdf)

Cross-breed cattle
The crossbreeds are having exotic inheritance from Jersey, Brown Swiss or Holstein Friesian or a combination of these different breeds. Jersey breed is known for the milk fat percent and Holstein for the high quantity of milk.

Cross-breed cattle in India

(Source: National Dairy Development Board )

Indigenous cattle of India

(Source: National Dairy Development Board )

4. SELECTION OF DAIRY CATTLE 
Proper selection is the first and the most important step to be adopted in dairying. Records are the basis of selection and hence proper identification of animals and record keeping is essential. Cross-breed animals with exotic inheritance of about 50 percent are preferable. This preference is based on comparison of the performance of the animals with different percentage of exotic inheritance. Fifty percent of the native germplasm is helpful to retain the adaptability, heat tolerance and disease resistance traits of local animals, in cross breeds. The utilization of the Zebu (Sahiwal) germplasm in the formation of breeds like Australian Friesian Sahiwal (50% of Holstein and 50% Sahiwal) and its international recognition as a breed for the tropics is an example.

Maintaining animals sustainable to the situation is the best policy. Bringing animals from different agro-climatic conditions causes problems due to non-adjustment in many cases. In case, purchase becomes absolutely essential it should be from similar environmental conditions as far as possible.

General selection procedures for dairy breeds

Selection of dairy cows
Selecting a calf in calf show, a cow in cattle show by judging is an art. A dairy farmer should build up his own herd by breeding his own herd. Following guidelines will be useful for selection of a diary cow.

Breed characteristics of high yielding dairy cows

Selecting breeds for Commercial Dairy Farm - Suggestions

Selection of cow/buffalo breeds for commercial farm
Cows

(Source: BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune)

5. HOUSING FOR DAIRY CATTLE
An efficient management of cattle will be incomplete without a well planned and adequate housing. of cattle. Improper planning in the arrangement of animal housing may result in additional labour charges and that curtail the profit of the owner. During erection of a house for dairy cattle, care should be taken to provide comfortable' accommodation for an individual cattle. No less important is the (1) proper sanitation, (1) durability, (3) arrangements for the production of clean milk under convenient and economic conditions, etc.

Location of Dairy Buildings
The points which should be considered before the erection of dairy buildings are as follows.

1. Topography and drainage
A dairy building should be at a higher elevation than the surrounding ground to offer a good slope for rainfall and drainage for the wastes of the dairy to avoid stagnation within. A leveled area requires less site preparation and thus lesser cost of building. Low lands and depressions and proximity to places of bad odour should be avoided.

2. Soil type
Fertile soil should be spared for cultivation. Foundation soils as far as possible should not be too dehydrated or desiccated. Such a soil is susceptible to considerable swelling during rainy season and exhibit numerous cracks and fissures.

3. Exposure to the sun and protection from wind
A dairy building should be located to a maximum exposure to the sun in the north and minimum exposure to the sun in the south and protection from prevailing strong wind currents whether hot or cold. Buildings should be placed so that direct sunlight can reach the platforms, gutters and mangers in the cattle shed. As far as possible, the long axis of the dairy barns should be set in the north-south direction to have the maximum benefit of the sun.

4. Accessibility
Easy accessibility to the buildings is always desirable. Situation of a cattle shed by the side of the main road preferably at a distance of about 100 meters should be aimed at.

5. Durability and attractiveness
It is always attractive when the buildings open up to a scenic view and add to the grandeur of the scenery. Along with this, durability of the structure is obviously an important criterion in building a dairy.
 
6. Water supply
Abundant supply of fresh, clean and soft water should .be available at a cheap rate.

7. Surroundings
Areas infested with wild animals and dacoits should be avoided. Narrow gates, high manger curbs, loose hinges, protruding nails, smooth finished floor in the areas where the cows move and other such hazards should be eliminated.

8. Labour
Honest, economic and regular supply of labour is available.

9. Marketing
Dairy buildings should only be in those areas from where the owner can sell his products profitably and regularly. He should be in a position to satisfy the needs of the farm within no time and at reasonable price.

10. Electricity
Electricity is the most important sanitary method of lighting a dairy. Since a modem dairy always handles electric equipments which are also economical, it is desirable to have an adequate supply of electricity.

11. Facilities, labour, food
Cattle yards should be so constructed and situated in relation to feed storages, hay stacks, silo and manure pits as to effect the most efficient utilization of labour. Sufficient space per cow and well arranged feeding mangers and resting are contribute not only to greater milk yield of cows and make the work of the operator easier also minimizes feed expenses. The relative position of the feed stores should be quite adjacent to the cattle barn.
Noteworthy features of feed stores are given:

(Source: Dr.C. Paul Princely Rajkumar , AC&RI, Madurai.)

Types of Housing 
The most widely prevalent practice in this country is to tie the cows with rope on a Katchafloor except some organized dairy farms belonging to government, co-operatives or military where proper housing facilities exist. It is quit easy to understand that unless cattle are provide with good housing facilities, the animals will move too far in or out of the standing space, defecating all round and even causing trampling and wasting of feed by stepping into the mangers. The animals will be exposed to extreme weather conditions all leading to bad health and lower production.
Dairy cattle may be successfully housed under a wide variety of conditions, ranging from close confinement to little restrictions except at milking time. However, two types of dairy barns are in general use at the present time.
  1. The loose housing barn in combination with some type of milking barn or parlor.
  2. The conventional dairy barn.

Loose housing system:
Loose housing may be defined as a system where animals are kept loose except milking and at the time of treatment. The system is most economical. Some features of loose housing system are as follows.

Cattle Shed
The entire shed should be surrounded by a boundary wall of. 5" height from three side and manger etc., on one side. The feeding area should be provided with 2 to 2 ½ feet of manger space per cow. All along the manger, there shall be 10" wide water trough to provide clean, even, available drinking water. The water trough thus constructed will also minimize the loss of fodders during feeding. Near the manger, under the roofed house 5' wide floor should be paved with bricks having a little slope.
Beyond that, there should be open unpaved area (40'X35') surrounded by 5' wall with one gate. It is preferable that animals face north when they are eating fodder under the shade. During cold wind in winter the animals will automatically lie down to have the protection from the walls.

Shed for calves
On one side of the main cattle shed there be fully covered shed "10'x15' to accommodate young calves. Such sheds with suitable partitioning, may also serve as calving pen under adverse climatic conditions. Beyond this covered area there should be a 20'x10' open area having boundary wall so that calves may move there freely.
In this way both calf and cattle sheds will need in all 50'x50' area for 20 adult cows and followers. If one has limited resources, he can build ordinary, Katcha/semikatcha boundary walls but feeding and water trough should be cemented ones.
(Source: AC&RI, Madurai, Dr.C. Paul Princely Rajkumar )

Conventional Dairy Barn
The conventional dairy barns are comparatively costly and are now becoming less popular day by day. However, by this system cattle are more protected from adverse climatic condition.
The following barns are generally needed for proper housing of different classes
Dairy stock in the farm

Cow Sheds
      Cow sheds can be arranged in a single row if the numbers of cows are small. Say less than 10 or in a double row if the herd is a large one. Ordinarily, not more than 80 to 100 cows should be placed in one building. In double row housing, the stable should be so arranged that the cows face out (tails to tail system) or face in (head to head system) as preferred.

Advantages of tail to tail system

Tail to Tail System

Advantages of face to face system

         Face to face system

Floor
The inside floor of the barn should be of some impervious material which can be easily kept clean and dry and is not slippery. Paving with bricks can also serve ones purpose. Grooved cement concrete floor is still better.
The surface of the cowshed should be laid with a gradient of 1" to 1 14" from manger to excreta channel. An overall floor space of  65 to 70 sq.ft. Per adult cow should be satisfactory.

Walls
The inside of the walls should have a smooth hard· finish of cement, which will not allow any lodgment of dust and moisture. Comers should be round. For plains, dwarf walls about 4 to 5 feet in height and roofs supported by masonry work or iron pillars will be best or more suitable. The open space in between supporting pillars will serve for light and air circulation.
 
Roof
Roof of the barn may be of asbestos sheet or tiles. Corrugated iron sheets have the disadvantage of making extreme fluctuations in the inside temperature of the barn in different seasons. However, iron sheets with aluminum painted tops to reflect sunrays and bottoms provided with wooden insulated ceilings can also achieve the objective. A height of 8 feet at the sides and 15 feet at the ridge will be sufficient to give the necessary air space to the cows. An adult cow requires at least about 800 cubic feet of air space under tropical conditions. To make ventilation more effective a continuous ridge ventilation is considered most desirable.

Manger
Cement concrete continuous manger with removable partitions is the best from the point of view of durability and cleanliness. A height of 1 '-4" for a high front manger and 6" to 9" for a low front manger is considered sufficient. Low front mangers are more comfortable for cattle but high front. mangers prevent feed wastage. The height at the back of the manger should be kept at 2'-6" to 3". An overall width of 2' to 2 1/2' is sufficient for a good manger.  

Alleys
The central walk should have a width of 5'-6' exclusive of gutters when cows face out, and 4'-5' when they face in. The feed alley, in case of a face out system should be 4' wide, and the central walk should show a slope of 1" from the center towards the two gutters running parallel to each other, thus forming a crown at the center.

Manure gutter
The manure gutter should be wide enough to hold all dung without getting blocked, and be easy to clean/ Suitable dimensions are 2" width with a cross-fall of !" away from standing. The gutter should have a gradient of 1" for every 10' length. This will permit a free flow of liquid excreta.

Doors
The doors of a single range cowshed should be 5" wide with a height of 7', and for double row shed the width should not be less than 8" to 9'. All doors of the barn should lie flat against the external wall when fully open.

Calving Boxes
Allowing cows to calve in the milking cowshed is highly undesirable and objectionable. It leads to in sanitary in milk production and spread of disease like contagious abortion in the herd. Special accommodation in the form of loose-boxes enclosed from all sides with a door should be furnished to all parturient cows. It should have an area of about 100 to 150 sq.ft. With ample soft bedding, it should be provided with sufficient ventilation through windows and ridge vent.

Isolation Boxes
Animals suffering from infectious disease must be segregated soon from the rest of the herd. Loose boxes of about 150 sq.ft are very suitable for this purpose. They sh9uld be situated at some distance from the other barns. Every isolation box should be self contained and should have separate connection to the drainage disposal system.

Sheds for Young Stocks
Calves should never be accommodated with adults in the cow shed. The calf house must have provision for daylight ventilation and proper drainage. Damp and ill-drained floors cause respiratory trouble in calves to which they are susceptible. For an efficient management and housing, the young stock should be divided into three groups, viz., young calves aged tip to one year bull calves, female calves. Each group should be sheltered in a separate calf house or calf shed. As far as possible the shed for the young calves should be quite close to the cow shed.
 
Each calf shed should have an open paddock or exercise yard. An area of 100 square feet per head for a stock of 10 calves and an increase of 50 square feet for every additional calf will make a good paddock. It is useful to classify the calves below one year into three age groups, viz., and calves below the age of 3 months, 3-6 months old calves and those over 6 months for a better allocation of the resting area. An overall covered space of:

Bull or Bullock Shed
Safety and ease in handling a comfortable shed ^protection from weather and a provision for exercise are the key points while planning accommodation for bulls or bullocks. A bull should never be kept in confinement particularly on hard floors. Such a confinement without adequate exercise leads to overgrowth of the hoofs creating difficulty in mounting and loss in the breeding power of the bull. A loose box with rough cement concrete floor about 15' by 10' in dimensions having an adequate arrangement of light and ventilation and an entrance 4' in width and 7' in height will make a comfortable housing for a bull. The shed should have a manger and a water trough.

If possible, the arrangement should be such that water and feed can be served without actually entering the bull house. The bull should have a free access to an exercise yard provided with a strong fence or a boundary wall of about 2' in height, i.e., too high for the bull to jump over. From the bull yard, the bull should be able to view the other animals of the herd so that it does not feel isolated. The exercise yard should also communicate with a service crate via a swing gate which saves the use of an attendant to bring the bull to the service crate.

(Source: Dr.C. Paul Princely Rajkumar, AC&RI, Madurai)

CLEANING OF ANIMAL SHEDS
The easy and quick method of cleaning animal house is with liberal use of tap water, proper lifting and disposes all of dung and used straw bedding, providing drainage, to the animal house for complete removal of liquid waste and urine. The daily removal of feed and fodder left over in the manger, reduces the fly nuisance. Periodical cleaning of water through eliminates the growth of algae, bacterial and viral contamination and thus keeps the animal healthy.

Sanitation in dairy farm
Sanitation is necessary in the dairy farm houses for eliminations of all micro organisms that are capable of causing disease in the animals. The presence of organisms in the animal shed contaminates the milk produced thus reducing its self life, milk produced in an unclean environment is likely to transmit diseases which affect human health: Dry floorings keeps the houses dry and protects from foot injury. Similarly the presence of flies and other insects in the dairy farm area are not only , disturbs the animals but also spreads deadly diseases to the animals egg. Babesiosis, Theileriosis.

Sanitizers
Sunlight is the most potent and powerful sanitizer which destroy most of the disease producing organism. Disinfection of animal sheds means making these free from disease  producing bacteria and is mainly-carried out by sprinkling chemical agents such as bleaching powder, Iodine and lodophor, sodium carbonate, Washing soda, Slaked Lime (Calcium hydroxide), Quick Lime (Calcium oxide) and phenol.

Bleaching powder:
This is also called calcium hypo chloride. It contains upto 39 % available chlorine which has high disinfecting activity.  

Iodine and lodophor:
This is commercially available as lodophores and contains between 1 and 2 % available Iodine which is an effective germicide.

Sodium carbonate:
A hot 4 % solution of washing soda is a powerful disinfectant against many viruses and certain bacteria.

Slaked lime and quick lime:
White washing with these agents makes the walls of the sheds and the water troughs free from bacteria.

Phenol:
Phenol or carbolic acid is very disinfectants which destroy bacteria as well as fungus.

Insecticide:
Insecticides are the substances or preparations used for killing insects. In dairy farms, ticks usually hide in cracks and crevices of the walls and mangers. Smaller quantities of insecticide solutions are required for spraying. Liquid insecticides can be applied with a powerful sprayer, hand sprayer, a sponge or brush; commonly used insecticides are BHC, DDT, Gramaxane wettable powders, malathion, Sevin 50 % emulsifying concentration solutions. These are highly poisonous and need to be handled carefully and should not come in contact with food material, drinking, water, milk etc.

Precautions while using disinfection In Insecticide.

Procedure

Other Provisions
The animal sheds should have proper facilities for milking barns, calf pens, calving pens and arrangement for store rooms etc. In each shed, there should be arrangement for feeding manger, drinking area and loafing area. The shed may be cemented or brick paved, but in any case it should be easy to clean. The floor should be rough, so that animals will not slip. The drains in the shed should be shallow and preferably covered with removable tiles. The drain should have a gradient of 1" for every 10" length. The roof may be of corrugated cement sheet, asbestos or brick and rafters. Cement concrete roofing is too expensive.  Inside the open unpaved area it is always desirable to plant some good shady trees for excellent protection against direct cold winds in winter and to keep cool in summer.

(Source: http://bieap.gov.in/DairyAnimalManagementTheory.pdf)

6. FEED MANAGEMENT

Feeding of Calves Colostrums

It will vary with the system followed, but whatever system may be practiced, the calf must receive the first milk which the cow gives after calving and is called colostrums. Be sure to feed the calf enough of colostrums between 2 to 2.5 liters daily for the first 3 days following its birth. Any excess colostrums may be fed to other calves in the herd in amounts equal to the amount of whole milk normally fed. If possible where a cow is milked before calving, freeze some of the colostrums for later feeding to the calf. None of it should be wasted. The digestibility of colostrums increases when it is given at a temperature between 99oF and 102oF. The importance of colostrums can be felt more from the following virtues.

The protein of colostrums consists of a much higher proportion of globulin than doe’s normal milk. The globulins are presumed to be the source of antibodies which aid in protecting the animal from many infections liable to affect it after birth. Gamma - globulin level in blood serum of neonatal calves is only 0.97 mg/ml at birth. It increase to 16.55 mg/ml level after first colostrums feeding at 12 hr and subsequently on the second day shows a peak of 28.18 mg/ml. This level more or less persists till the reti-culoendothelial system of the calf starts functioning to produce antibodies.

Feeding whole milk
In feeding whole milk, calves may be fed as per feeding schedule. While feeding whole milk the following points should be remembered.

Feeding skim milk
On many farms, large quantities of separated milk are available for feeding to calves and other livestock.  Excellent dairy calves can be raised by changing them from whole milk gradually after two weeks of their age.   Here again the feeding schedule should be followed.

Feeding dried skim milk, whey or buttermilk
The above dried products are mixed with water at the rate of 1 kg to 9 kg of water and then it is fed as skim milk.  To avoid digestive troubles the mix should always be fed to calves after warming it up to 100oF.

Feeding calf starters
Calf starter is a mixture consisting of ground farm grains, protein feeds and minerals, vitamins and antibiotics.  After a calf attains the age of 2 weeks the amount of whole milk given to it may be cut down.  One should then rub a small amount of starter on the calf's mouth, after each milk feeding for a few days when the calf will be accustomed to it.  When they reach four months of age, one should then transfer the calves to a "growing" grain ration. 

Feeding grain mixture
Better growth and greater resistance to calf ailments result from consumption of grain and milk by the calf then when the calf is fed only on milk.  At the age of 7-15 days the feeding of grain mixtures may be started.  In order to get calves accustomed to grain mixtures, place a small handful of grain mixture in the used pail.  As the calf is finishing its milk it may consume a portion, or one may offer a little in the hand immediately after feeding milk.

Excessive protein rich grain mixture is not desirable as milk is already rich in proteins.  A medium protein grain mixture is most suitable when milk is fed freely. A grain mixture of oats - 35 percent, linseed cake - 5 percent, bran - 30 percent, barley - 10 percent, groundnut cake - 20 percent may be fed to the calves.  Another good mixture consists of ground maize - 2 parts, wheat bran - 2.

(Source: Dr. C. Paul Princely Rajkumar, AC&RI, Madurai)